In contrast to the beneficial treatment of skin inflammation

In contrast to the beneficial treatment of skin-inflammation with PAH containing coal tar, epidemiology showed that environmental pollution, containing AHR-activating PAH, lead to more eczema [80]. Of note, other epidemiological data suggested that Th17 cell polarization may be enhanced air pollution, i.e. presumably by PAH [81]. A mouse model of AHR-overexpression in keratinocytes showed spontaneous formation of an atopic dermatitis-like skin inflammation via keratinocyte-mediated epidermal hyper-innervation [82]. Indeed, studies reported that the AHR is upregulated in atopic dermatits patients compared to healthy people [82,83]. Inflamed skin is characterized by infiltration or proliferation of a variety of immune Caspase-1, human recombinant proteinase like T helper cells, type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2), eosinophils, basophils and mast cells, as well as high expression of cytokines. These recruit more immune cells and also direct their specific activities. It was shown that AHR upregulates inflammatory cytokines by keratinocytes, e.g. TSLP, IL18, IL33, and IL8 [84,85]. However, cytokine release by local immune cells may become downregulated by AHR-ligands, as has been demonstrated for CCL5 [86,87]. Interestingly, also different AHR-ligands can lead to distinct results of AHR-signaling, e.g. in a model of delayed-type hypersensitivity in mice, the dietary AHR-ligands I3C and DIM dampened the inflammation by promoting Tregs over Th17 cells, while the endogenous UV-photoproduct FICZ led to an exacerbating effect and induced more Th17 cells [88]. This might be due to off-target effects of I3C/DIM, which are not only AHR ligands, but also inhibitors of NFκB [89], which is in turn relevant for an efficient Th17 response. FICZ does not inhibit NFκB [90].
Two hypotheses and three open questions On the facts and ideas laid out above, we had recently suggested the following two hypotheses [12], which are visualized in Figure 1: At the same time, it is obvious that important questions remain unsolved, and we here list those that we think are most relevant for any preventive or therapeutic use of AHR ligands.
Conclusion
Conflict of interest
Acknowledgment We thank Daniel Biljes for help with the graphics. We gratefully acknowledge funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (grants ES103/7 and HA-7346/2-1).
Metabolic Alterations Associated with Cancer Metabolism is a complex set of coordinated biochemical reactions that support the bioenergetic needs of the cell and maintain basic life processes, such as growth and differentiation. Depending on the availability of nutrients and environmental cues, different metabolic pathways are used by specific cell types to produce energy. Most cells utilize glucose via oxidative phosphorylation to obtain the energy needed to support their needs [1]. Oxidative phosphorylation involving the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA)/Krebs cycle produces energy efficiently in the form of ATP. Under hypoxic conditions, glucose participates in the less energetically efficient anaerobic glycolysis [2]. However, cancer cells support their metabolism through glycolysis: aerobic glycolysis (the so-called ‘Warburg effect’) or anaerobic glycolysis under normoxic or hypoxic conditions, respectively [3]. Although aerobic glycolysis produces less ATP compared with oxidative phosphorylation, the process provides biosynthetic molecules needed to support the proliferation of cancer cells [2]. Therefore, augmented glycolysis is considered a hallmark of cancer metabolism. HIF is a transcription factor that is activated in response to reduced oxygen levels and other environmental changes. It has a central role in sensing environmental cues and coordinating the transcriptional control of metabolic pathways that drive glycolysis [4]. AHR is a transcription factor that is activated by small molecules provided by the diet, the gut flora, the metabolism, and the environment [5]. In the context of GBM, the activity of AHR is controlled by tryptophan derivatives present in the tumor microenvironment. AHR has been shown to cooperate with HIF-1α to control immune responses and the differentiation of type 1 regulatory T cells [6]. AHR also has additional well-established functions in the immune response, controlling the generation of effector and regulatory T cells, while also modulating the innate immune response 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. In this review, we focus on the roles of HIF-1α and AHR in abnormal metabolic processes that contribute to the pathogenicity of the most aggressive and currently incurable primary glioma type of brain tumor: GBM.